The Farm Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Farm - Essay Example Corn farming may seem to be an uncomplicated endeavor but this work entails a lot of hard work and sacrifices and it poses a variety of influences to the life of a society as a whole. This chapter gives a narrative account about a farm in Iowa specifically in a place named Greene County (Pollan, 2006). This farm is situated in a part described as having some of the richest soil in the world, a layer of cakey alluvial loam nearly two feet thick (Pollan, 2006, p. 33). The narrator in the story is driving the tractor of one of the farmers mentioned who is named George Naylor (Pollan, 2006). The principal crop that is being planted by Naylor is corn (Pollan, 2006). It is described how corn is planted by farmers throughout the years and the different government policies and innovations with regards to farming are also given consideration in this chapter. The chapter is worth reading for a variety of reasons. First, it is very informative for the reason that it tells the life of a farmer, which does not only focus on the typical life of a farmer wherein he plants and reaps his harvest. Conversely, the life of the farmer, Naylor is rooted with a variety of events that contributed to the manner how he manages his farm (Pollan, 2006). Second, it stirs up the interest of readers towards farming which for others may just be plain and simple but it portrays that there is more to farming than just planting and harvesting. Farming is highlighted to be in the bloodstream of Naylor because his father too was a farmer (Pollan, 2006). Corn farming is full of intricacies for the reason that a farmer must choose the right breed to plant in his soil and find means to increase his harvest such as choosing the right pesticide to drive pests away which could be detrimental to his crops, choose the right fertilizer that will make his crops stouter and the strategy to

Cross cultural communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cross cultural communication - Essay Example Cultural differences define the communication, attitude, behavior, decision making process and the leadership style. The impact of these cultural differences on the organization can be understood from the illustration that when a Japanese firm sends its executive to United States as head of operations that executive have to understand the cultural differences of the two countries. Japanese organizational culture can be termed as collectivism where group has priority over individual whereas US is characterized by Individualism. The individual comes before the group. Due to this difference attitude, behavior, motivation, reward and leadership style is altogether different in the two countries. The Japanese not only has to realize the importance of individual reward and individual contributions but also must recognize the potential conflict in individual and group roles in US. Toyota executives had to face these difficulties in acclimatizing to US culture (Griffin). Despite accelerated globalization organizations only managed to transcend boundaries but they were unable to operate beyond nationality. What we observe today is a wide range of cultural differences in work related values, attitudes and behavior. This requires an effective cross culture communication so that these cultural differences and workforce diversity can be utilized to maximize organizational benefits. Hofstede has identified five dimensions of cultural differences which influence organizations. They are namely individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, career success/quality of life and Confucian dynamism. Successful organizations explore these differences and take advantage of these differences (Nancy J Adler). Same is done by Toyota. There is huge difference in the organizational culture of the company in Japan and in America but they have managed it very successfully. At the macro level operations of the organization remains the same it is only at the micro level whe re the differences exists and they are exploited to the full advantage of the company. Cross cultural communication differences arise because communication style or preferences are deep rooted in our culture which we learn with experiences throughout our life. Our culture is so much inside us that we expect the whole world to look at it in the same way. Learning a foreign knowledge is not enough for cross cultural communication. Intercultural communication can be improved by developing an understanding of the following three factors. External and internal culture, high context and low context culture and the last is monochromic and polychromic time. Understanding of external culture can be very easily developed through history, politics etc. It is the internal culture which defines our attitudes, behavior and values that creates misunderstandings in most of the cross cultural encounters. This vast difference in the internal culture of the two societies i.e. Japan and USA is a source of many misunderstandings in the organization. Japan has a culture of respect and politeness and they expect the same in return whereas internal culture of USA is more direct, straightforward and frank. High context and low context cultures also define our communication styl

Health Promotion Education

Health Promotion Education Health promotion or education strategies are applicable to all health problems and are not restricted to any particular health issue or particular group of behaviours. World Health Organization (WHO) (1986) explains that health promotion entails the processes which make possible people to enhance their understanding and control their health in order to improve their health. For a person to attain a state of full physical, psychological as well as social happiness a person or a group has to be able to recognise and understand goals, to satisfy their wants, and modify or deal with the environment as well as illness. Thus, health is viewed as a resource for daily life, and not the goal of living. More so, health is a constructive aspect stressing social as well as personal resources together with physical abilities. Consequently, health promotion or education is not only the duty of health sector, except tit entails much more than a healthy life-style. This essay seeks to address the ro le that health education/promotion can play in empowering patients to take more responsibility for their own health. A lot of present day and tomorrows main causes of disease, disability and even death are issues which can be greatly reduced through preventive attitudes which are learned through health promotion or education in earlier ages and build through social as well as political strategies and stipulations. However as Naidoo and Wills (2000):observes, Health promotion programs need to be harmonized through effective collaboration across all sectors, professions as well as health agencies, And should be conveyed in way which is sensitive to the culture of the people. Naidoo and Wills (2000) underscore the 1997 WHO Jakarta declaration which outlined five main approaches for effective health promotion /education. Formulating a healthy public strategy Creating a supportive atmosphere Strengthening community action plan Development of personal skills and abilities Reorientation of health services Partnership working Health promotion delivery can be highly improved through creation of partnership working as noted by the WHO. Widening the foundation of health intervention approaches implies tackling socio-economic together with environmental aspects, improvement of accessibility to health services, reduction of inequalities in addition to targeting health education to each and every group regardless of age, gender, and status or age differences. Addressing health inequalities In order to formulate an effective health promotion strategy, health inequalities has to be addressed and taken as part of formulation of education plan (Braun et al, 2000). Professions in all health bodies have a duty of delivering successful local health interventions in order to decrease inequalities. In addition to that, all professions in health agencies have a duty to address health promotion or education and preventative measures which aim at reducing effects caused by sore throat A lot of suggestions put forward by Braun et al (2000) can be undertaken within a local set-up, for instance raising the intake of advantages within a suitable group, formulating health education in schools, promoting waking and making sure that all the requirements from all groups of people even the ethnic minorities are considered when formulating health policies. Frameworks There are a number of models which have been formulated in order to help in heath promotion, these models are basically grouped into two main groups which are: Health promotion concepts which describe health promotion as a scope of interventions (formulated by, Tannahill (1985); French and Adams (1986); Beattie (1991)) Health promotion model which analyse health determinants and suggest responsive measures (Laframboise (1973); Raeburn and Rootman, (1989); Hancock, 1993) In these two main classes of health promotion models, Naidoo and Wills (2000) explains that, the health practitioners are viewed as leaders (figures with power) or as facilitators of activities (negotiators) Beatties model of health promotion According to this model, there are four main aspects entailed in health promotion. These main aspects are: Health persuasion Personal counselling Community development Legislative action These four main aspects contribute in attaining a full picture when formulating a local health promotion action strategy for partnership collaboration. Ajzen, (1991) clearly observes that, all heath promotion models measures require understating by the patients own intent to change his/her behaviour. The concept of intended behaviour by Ajzen (1991) is among a number of behaviour modification outlined in health promotion main steps. According to this concept, there are three main steps regarding an individuals intended behaviour these are: A persons attitude is determined his/her thinking regarding the consequences The expectations from other people The persons supposed control and values in their capacity to change Every agency or persons involved in health promotion is highly encouraged to apply these concepts in supporting their individual initiatives whilst formulating a multi-partnership long term plan. Nurse practitioners Nurse practitioners have more experience which they gain through extra training they get which gives the ability to see patients who have various minor illnesses as well as injuries. This entails going through the history of the illness, undertaking a physical analyses, instigating blood tests or performing any other test as it may be indicated. In addition to that the nurse practitioner has a duty of carrying out a diagnosis as well as giving treatment options to the patient. It is against this background that makes these nurse practitioners to be in a better position of performing health promotion/ education in order to empower patients with knowledge on how to manager a number of minor illness which are common but not alarming. As such nurse practitioners are in a central position of empowering patients on sore throat management. Minor illness: Sore throat Many of minor illness such as sore throat can be mainly be managed through O.T.C (over the counter) non prescriptions drugs which are able to offer relief to the symptoms. Nevertheless, it is Robbins et al (2003) notes that all minor illnesses have a possibility of turning out to be serious. Patients should be advised that they should seek for the services of a doctor or a nurse in case the symptoms of such an illness are sore throat turns to be severe or in case there is sudden change of symptoms upon taking the OTC drugs, or when they are not working. Robbins et al (2003) observes that, patients with sore throat can be advised not to sure any outdated drug or antibiotics which they used in the past, this information are also pertinent to patients with other minor illness. Sore throat management Sore throat is among the most common minor illnesses which affect persons of all ages all over the world. However, children have been known to suffer from sore throat more than adults, on an average it has been established that children suffer from sore throat five or six times every year (Health Development Agency, 2004). In UK, about 90 of children in pre-school age group are known to look for consultation form a doctor at on point or another, mainly for symptoms which are associated with sore throat. Sore throat is among top ten common illnesses which patients come for consultation in primary care, whereby children seek consultation than any other group. More so, about one child in every 7 children who consult because of sore throat will again seek for consultation for sore throat after some time (Health Development Agency, 2004). These numbers have changed just slightly over the years. Adult Patients on the other hand on many occasions show anxiety as well as hopelessness when de aling with sore throat. Such problems and worries can be effectively addressed through the provision of reliable clear information about health, through heath promotion activities. (Health Development Agency, 2004) Nursing practitioner can use heath promotion to increase the ability of patients to manage sore throat. Sore throat management in general nursing practice and advancement to tonsillectomy in some cases lead to noteworthy use of health care services resources. In many cases, sore throat condition is comparatively minor and also self restrictive. Sore throat has got very little if any lasting adverse health consequences. Nonetheless, a considerable proportion of patients undergo undesirable morbidity and inconveniences caused by sore throat. Due to this many patients seek health practitioners who may keenly treat them, using antibiotics of substantial costs and questionable efficiency. (Health Development Agency, 2004) Basing on data from national health care records, sore throat is ranked as the eighth very common appearance in primary health care for many people (NSH, 2000). This translates to about 1 person in every 30 people. National Health Services (NHS) has averaged that annually, there are 0.1 consultations carried out concerning sore throat. Assuming that each consultation made cost 10 sterling pounds, then it cost the National Health Services (NHS), about 60 million sterling pounds every year, before adding any other cost of investigating or treating sore throat. Hence, heath promotion becomes very important in reducing these costs and in empowering people on how to manage sore throat. In addition many of sore throat illness gain exceptionally little from treatment through using antibiotics (Schalock 2000) Yet again; the use of these antibiotics continues to be common with many patients with sore throat receiving antibiotics. But, unnecessary prescription of antibiotic only results in wasted heath care resources, results in a cycle which promotes additional consultations in future for same sore throat illness and as well contributes a lot to the antibiotic resistance problem. Factors which influence people to take a decision to seek consultations comprise concerns, beliefs, knowledge and also expectations. Patients often dread any illness, and they mainly worry that they may not be capable of recognizing symptoms of a grave aliment (Ajzen 2002). Some patients get anxious of ‘bothering their normal practitioners with sore throat illness. At the same time these patients do not have knowledge about have best to treat a sore throat. Patients might have certain belief regarding the causes of sore throat illness (Ajzen, 2002), the implications of the sore throat symptoms and also the effectiveness of drugs to treat sore throat. Lazenbatt et al (2001) explains that, offering patients with information which is written regarding sore throat illness may assist to decrease the anxiety these patients suffer and improve the patient satisfaction as well as enablement. More so, the use these written information can reduce s re-consultations rates and use of antibiotics to cure sore throat. Expectations with which patients come at consultations rooms may have an impact on the way patients may be treated. There is no doubt that a patient who walks into a consultation room being expected to treated with antibiotic may end up being prescribed by an antibiotic particularly from a drug stores. But, studies have indicated that patients value getting a through assessment, explanations, assurance and guidance or advice more that receiving prescriptions. Such revelations show the importance and the value of these patients being offered health education regarding the management of their illness, in this case sore throat. (Lazenbatt et al 2001) Health promotion The present scope of nursing does acknowledge the key role of nurse practitioners in health promotion /education, Prevention of diseases and treatment of these diseases, sore throat management through medications as well as through non medication treatment. The public frequently seek out nurse practitioners as their main source of health advice and also care for a number of minor illnesses since nurse practitioners are easily assessable. In 2001 a report by Department of Health (2001a) underscored the importance of nurse practitioners in health promotion and highlighted the advantages of using these practitioners in health promotion at the same time calling for them to collaborate with other professions in health promotion/ education regarding minor illness. Sore throat A number of measures have been formulated which nursing practitioners can use to in promoting health education regarding sore throat. National Health Services (NHS) recommends that the following steps should be followed by the practitioners in health promotion: Throat swabs need not to be done as a routine in sore throat examination Practitioners should not relay on clinical examination to distinguish between bacterial and viral sore throat Do not perform rapid antigen routine in the case of sore throat, but it is suggested that research has to be carried out through the use of antibody titres. Patients need to be told by nurse practitioners that the common cause of sore throat is a virus or bacteria, though some other causes can also lead to sore throat. But, when one gets a sore throat it is possible to mange the sore throat by undertaking the following steps. Taking of pain killers, in specific soluble analgesia, dissolve tow tablets and take them three times each day, it has been proved to be highly effective Rest your voice when having sore throat as much as you can keep off smoking if you smoke and avoid smoky surroundings Increase the amounts of fluids you take, keep your self warm and try going to sleep early. Take antibacterial lozenges only or together with throat sprays which contains anaesthetics to get pain relief. When a patient takes these steps, a lot of sore throat cases will be treated without necessary going to the get a doctor or seeking other heath practitioners services. However if a person takes the above mentions steps and still feels the following, then he/she needs to see the doctor. Relentless sore throat Having problems in swallowing or having severe pain when swallowing Experiencing fever or chill Wheeze for those patients who suffer from asthma or having difficulties in breathing Experiencing lethargy Sore throat Management Paracetamol is successful and efficient in treating symptoms related to sore throat when administered within 48 hours. Pateients can also use ibuprofen effectively to manage symptoms related to sore throat if they take it within the48 hours. Patients need to take paracetamol as a medication of analgesia caused by sore throat , putting in consideration the high dangers which are related to other analgesics When using antibiotics patients, its is important the nursing practitioners as well educate the general public and patients in particular on management of sore throat in relation to antibiotics. In particular these information needs to be delivered: Penicillin seems to have a crucial (though small) advantage against analgestics/antipyretics specifically in initial lessening of symptoms in patients who have harsh symptoms of sore throat. Nevertheless, antibiotics must not be taken routinely to bring about symptomatic reprieve in cases of sore throat. Sore throat need not to be treated using antibiotics particularly to avert the rheumatic fever development or severe glomerulonephritis development Using antibiotics can avert cross infection of sore throat within the group A beta haemolytic in situation where institutions are closed for example boarding schools or barracks. However, the antibiotics must not be routinely applied to avert cross infection of sore throat within the common community. (Roberts, et al, 2002) To prevent suppurative complication in sore throat infection does not imply specific sign for antibiotic treatment. Preventing sore throats It is not possible to fully prevent sore throat; however the nurse practitioners have to educate the patients on how to reduce the risks and the manner in which to take care so that one can avoid getting sore throat as much as its possible. The following steps are important preventative measure which needs to be undertaken by each individual: Taking a well balanced and healthy meal with lots of vegetables and fresh fruits Getting enough sleep in the night and enough rest Not smoking Avoiding surroundings which are smoky as much as one can manage Indications of tonsillectomy in sore throat In cases where tonsillectomy develops as a result of sore throat, then patients have to know that the following aspects may occur: They mare suffer five or extra cases of sore throat each year, or may have sore throat symptoms through out the year. It is recommended that patients should take six month duration being watchful of any symptoms before tonsillectomy in order to establish strongly the manner of the symptoms and permit patients to take into account the entire implications of having an operation. The moment a decision is reached to perform tonsillectomy, then the operation should be performed as quickly as possible, in order to maximise the duration of benefit prior to natural resolution of symptoms occurring (without having performed tonsillectomy). The health practitioners should know that sore throat which is related with respiratory problems or stridor is an utter warning for a patient to be admitted. But, at the same time practitioners have to be aware of the basic psychosocial influences among patients coming to seek medication because of sore throat (Morrell et al, 2000). Heath promotion evaluation In order to make any program more effective it is important that it should be evaluated. Nurse practitioners are advised to put into consideration all measures which have been taken. Planning processes, implementation of the program and evaluation of whole processes are all important elements of health promotion. As Whiteland, (2001) notes, planning and implementation phases of any specific health associated programme are essential for making sure that the program is successful. Have an effective plan and implementation process allows the practitioners to anticipate for proper evaluation processes. When carrying out health promotion/ education many nurse practitioners do not normally put into consideration every element of the program processes. In many cases planning stage is the one that is emphasized. Whiteleand (2001) adds that it is not common to see a proof of evaluative measures in health promotion. But: Evaluation is important since it offers the crucial tool for health promotion practitioner Knowledge base which shows various health promotion evaluation methods as well as approaches are need to effectively implement a successful health promotion. Without carrying out an evaluative processes, there are reservations that health promotion program may not achieve its objective, and may fail to settle those funding the program. According to Schalock, (2000); South and Tilford (2000): there are a number of reasons as to why it is imperative that health practitioners undertake evaluate health promotion programs. For example, practitioner has to evaluate the level and degree to which the promotion program has and is attaining its objective. In addition to making sure that the program is cost-effective. In accordance with the above mention reasons to appraise health promotion plan, are the rising rationalisation programs of health services. The present economic situation in UKs National Health Services (NHS), together with latest deep-seated quality related changes, has resulted to increased attention of examining health promotion (South and Tilford, 2000; Raphael,2000). In addition to that, Tones (2000) highlights two major classes of evaluation, these are, assessing what has been attained and assessing the manner in which the objectives have been attained. Thus, nurse practitioners may use a number of available evaluation methods such as evidence-based, cost-effective or performance management (Lazenbatt et al, 2001; Morrell et al, 2000) to assess how effective health promotion regarding sore throat management is. The long-standing viewpoint Tones (2000) observe that, health promotion programs should incorporate socially empowerment as well as enabling activities. The program discussed here regarding sore throat was aimed at empowering patients to effectively control sore throat and reduces costs incurred in sore throat through promoting healthy lifestyles among measures encouraged. However, for health promotion program to be more effective, it should involve the whole community. The Beattie health promotion discussed earlier in this paper puts emphasis on building relations which last longer, and making sure that public health promotion/education, prevention, and protection are undertaken by the whole community, and not only nurse practitioners. For the health promotion program to be more effective, Bakley (2001) proposes that health promotion /education has to create a healthy public strategy, create supportive atmosphere, foster personal or group abilities and skills, enhance community action program, and re-orient health services. Conclusion Health promotion/education is programs carried out in order to enable people increase their control and improve their state of health. The aim is to make people to attain complete physical, psychological and social welfare. A person or a community must be in a position to identify and acknowledge aspirations to satisfy the needs as well as modify or manage the environment, or illness. Health is taken as daily a resource which needs to be maintained. There are a number of models which have been formulated that by different health experts who are used in health promotion strategies, and Beattie, (1991) health promotion model is commonly used. As it can be seen, sore throat is a minor illness which should not cause any alarm to a patient yet many people when suffering from sore throat end up with a lot of anxiety and using expensive antibiotics which is not really necessary. Thus, health promotion becomes more important in sensitising people on how not only manage sore throat but any ot her minor illness. But, for any health promotion program to be effective and successful, it should be monitored and evaluated to measure its achievements and ensure that it attains its goals and objectives. Reference: Ajzen I (2002): Perceived Behavioural Control, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and the Theory of Planned Behaviour: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Ajzen, I (1991): The theory of planned behaviour: Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes; 50 Allen J; Dyas J; Jones M; Allen J; Dyas J; Jones M (2002): Minor illness in children: parents views and use of health services: British Journal of Community Nursing 2002, Ashley A; Lloyd A; Lamb S and Bartlett H. (2001): Is health-related quality of life a suitable outcome measure for evaluating health promotion programmes: Nursing Times Research 6, Beattie, A (1991): Knowledge and control in health promotion: a test case for social policy and theory; in: Gabe, J; Calnan, M; Bury, M (edited) The Sociology of the Health Service; London; Routledge/ Taylor and Francis. Bakley A (2001): Evaluating Health Promotion: Methodological Diversity: In Using Research for Effective Health Promotion 🙠 Oliver S. Peersman G. Eds): Open University Press; Buckingham, Braun B; Fowles J; Solberg L; Kind E; Healey M; Anderson R (2000): Patient beliefs about the characteristics, causes, and care of the common cold:- an update :Journal of Family Practice Department of Health (2000): The NHS Plan: A plan for investment; a plan for reform: London; DH. Department of Health (2001a): The Expert Patient: A new approach to chronic disease management for the twenty-first century: London; DH Fitzmaurice D (2001): Written information for treating minor illness: British Medical Journal Health Development Agency (2004): Developing Healthy Communities; London; HDA Lazenbatt A; Orr J. and ONeill E (2001): Inequalities in health:-evaluation and effectiveness in practice. International Journal of Nursing Practice 7, Learmonth A. (2000): Utilising research in practice and generating evidence from practice. Health Education Research 15 Little P, et al (2001): Randomised controlled trial of self management leaflets and booklets for minor illness provided by post. British Medical Journal Morrell D, Avery J, Watkins J (2000): Management of minor illness: British Medical Journal Naidoo J and Wills J (2000): Health Promotion: Foundations for Practice; 2nd edition: Bailliere Tindall: London Naidoo, J and Wills, J (2000a): Health Promotion Foundations for Practice: London; Balliere Tindall Raphael D. Bryant T. (2000): Putting the population into population health: Canadian Journal of Public Health 91 Raphael D. (2000): The question of evidence in health promotion: Health Promotion International 15. Raphael D. (2000): The question of evidence in health promotion: Health Promotion International 15, Robbins H; Hundley V; Osman L (2003): Minor illness education for parents of young children: Journal of Advanced Nursing; 44(3) Roberts C et al (2002): Reducing physician visits for colds through consumer education: JAMA Schalock R (2000): Outcome-Based Evaluation: Kluwer Academic Publishers; London South J and Tilford S. (2000): Perceptions of research and evaluation in health promotion practice and influences on activity: Health Education Research 15, Tones K. (2000): Evaluating health promotion: a tale of three errors; Patient Education and Counselling 39, Tones, K (2000a): Evaluating health promotion. Patient Education and Counselling 39: 227-236. Whitehead D. (2001): A social cognitive model for health education/health promotion practice: Journal of Advanced Nursing 38, Whitehead D. (2001a): Health education, behavioural change and social psychology: nurslings contribution to health promotion? Journal of Advanced Nursing 35; World Health Organization (1986): The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion; Geneva; WHO World Health Organization (1997): The Jakarta Declaration: Geneva; WHO.

Osteoarthritis :: Health, Diseases

Osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee is a common problem throughout the world. As estimated by the World Health Organization, it is one of the major causes of impaired function that reduces quality of life worldwide and estimated to be the fourth leading cause of disability by the year 2020 (Kraus et al., 2006 and Wluka, 2006). Knee osteoarthritis (OA) is a leading cause of chronic disability worldwide including Malaysia (Zakaria et al., 2009). As defined by Jette et al., 2002 disability is the impaired performance of expected socially defined life tasks, in a typical sociocultural and physical environment. Physical function limitation, or difficulty with physical tasks and activities, is fundamental to the development of disability in OA. Pain is likely to be a central factor in the physical function limitation of knee OA, both due to its direct effects on function and as a route through which other factors operate. However, measuring only the pain is not enough. Physiotherapy must know exactly what functional limitation experienced by the patient and help them to handle those instead of treating just the pain. In the study by Izal et al., 2010 they discovered that there was discrepancy between levels of disability and quality of life (QOL) of Spanish elderly people with OA knee. They found this disparity possible due to active coping strategies practiced by the patient such as positive self-statements, re-interpreting pain sensations, distraction, ignoring sensations, prayer and joint protection strategies. Knee Osteoarthritis prevalence is expected to rise significantly in the upcoming decades due to increasing life expectancy and decreasing physical activity, leading to a constant increase in body weight. Facing this situation, the WHO and the United Nations have declared the years 2000 to 2010 to be the "Bone and Joint Decade" (Rosemann et al., 2007). The exact prevalence of OA is difficult to determine because of the lack of use of standardized criteria. In epidemiological studies OA is often described by radiological criteria, however radiological disease especially when mild has poor correlation with the presence of pain. Studies found that in all populations, so far the prevalence of knee OA is higher than that of hip OA but this is more marked in Asian populations. In Malaysia, knee becomes the most common site for OA (Zakaria et al, 2009). Regarding prevalence, it is a frequently replicated result that women have a higher probability for developing OA, especially OA of the knee (Felson et al.

Explain How Important the Nurse Patient Relationship Essay

Peplau (1952) observed the nurse as a fundamental tool for change whilst explaining how powerful the nurse-patient relationship is. The nurse approaches the relationship with understanding and experience obtained personally through their lives but also through their training and work. Generally, it is considered the more training and work experience a nurse has, the more therapeutically effective they are likely to be but this is not always the case. Stuart and Sudeen (1997). There are many influences on the relationship that can both obstruct or benefit the nurse-patient relationship. Having a supportive, open, non-judgmental nature aids effective patient-nurse interactions which are important to reduce patient’s vulnerability and distress. Being there for patients reflects not only a positive, welcoming attitude of the nurse, but shows commitment, respect and value to the patient. Presence is defined as physical and psychological being so a nurse ‘being’ with a patient is essential for the purpose of meeting the patient’s health care needs. A nurse must take time to listen and understand the patients experience without being non judgmental, and to deliver the care needs of the patient. A central aim of building a relationship includes initiating supportive interpersonal communication in order to understand perceptions and needs of others. Reynolds and Scott (1999)This assignment will explain how aspects of the nurse-patient relationship are necessary for the provision of patient-focused care within any branch of nursing. The nurse patient relationship depends on the attitude and personality of the nurse. As a mental health nurse student, forming a positive, trusting relationship firstly involves the process of relaying information and paying attention to non-verbal cues such as body language and eye contact. Both the NICE guidance and the NHS Constitution () stress the importance of good communication between healthcare professionals and patients. Non verbal messages transfer both positive and negative signals. From the patients point of view, positive signals can express that the nurse is approachable, trusting and has an interest to care and communicate appropriately with their needs. This is indicated via listening without judging and responding whilst understanding to help create therapeutic relationships. Even without the patient being vocal or asking for anything, the art of the nurse profession is noticing when something is wrong and delivering good practice based on respect and dignity. Both nurses and patients may adapt non verbal negative cues such as bad posture, facial expression, or space boundaries which indicate at first impression vulnerability or distress. Using body language plays an important role in building rapport with patients as some body postures may not facilitate certain patients. Evaluating body language is also part of the nurse accessing the patient, whilst considering their future clinical relationship as it involves data collection, both physically and psychologically that may be useful in assessment, diagnosis, treatment and care plans. every interaction whether verbal or non verbal between the nurse and patient is placed within the overall context of a relationship. Throughout the course of a student nurses training, social interactions are part of learning to become a skilled nurse. As such, nursing is a social activity and nurses need to be socially competent. They must be skilled in the art of interpersonal communication and human relationship building. Professional codes of practice dictate that nurses are capable of relating therapeutically with patients as more than passive recipients of care. Relationships between patient and nurses humanise healthcare because they are part of the vehicles of which nurses respond to patient’s subjective experience through building rapour and knowing exactly what the patient’s needs are. As well as the strong relationships with patients, nurses express concern, care and commitment The profession of nursing is both an art and a science. While nursing Practice links the art and science of nursing, nursing education focuses on The scientific behavioural outcomes of learning content knowledge and nursing Skills. As Communication with patients is a primary responsibility for a nurse, it is imperative nurses can communicate with different patients hat require different approaches to communications. Depending on a patient’s age, personality, culture,, current medical condition, and other factors, nurses often find their normal methods of communication are ineffective. In these situations, and for patients health needs, knowing a variety of communication techniques is invaluable. Cultural background, race, and ethnicity play an important role in a patient’s life. Not only do these factors play a part treatment and diagnoses, but also in their state of mind and emotional approach to nursing care which could cause problems with the nurse-patient relationship.. Understanding differences socially such as family life, and cultural habits, physical differences, and other defining attributes helps nurses understand how best to help their patients. Sensitivity and knowledge cultural diversity makes in building a healthy nurse-patient relationship. The age of a patient also has a significant impact on the nurse-patient relationship. Children and the elderly require different treatment options and approaches to the relationship than middle-aged adults. Other family members are routinely involved to varying degrees, and heavily influendepending on the age of the patient. For example, the relationship between a nurse and a patient who suffers from dementia will greatly rely on the relationship between nurse and family members to gain information to contribute towards holistic care. Not only will the care of a patient vary with their age, but so does their ability to communicate and participate in decision-making, which also affects the nurse-patient relationship. By its very nature, the nurse-patient relationship demonstrates a difference of power. The nurse is viewed to have a more extensive knowledge base in terms of care and treatment options and so the patient must rely on their nurse to advice and guide them through the best treatment options for their needs whether mental or physical. This is why it is essential to be naturally compassionate, empathetic, approachable, trustworthy, emotionally strong, caring, and motivated towards treatment and recovery. As well as having particular personal skills, the nurse should involve the patient, whilst giving choices in everyday care in a holistic way. Holism is defined within nursing to consider the physical, emotional, social, economic, and spiritual needs of patients, their response to their illnesses, and the effect of illness on patients’ abilities to meet self-care needs Mosby (2001). For example, it is a nurses duty to discuss and provide information about treatment, therefore it is important for patient participation at all times, allowing the patient, choice, respect, dignity and involving them in their care plan taking into consideration their social pattern which could include daily routine, mobility and diet. pirituality and fulfilment are also important factor of the nurse patient relationship as this includes important areas such as respect/knowledge for religion, hobbies, belongingness and self expression.. if these core factors are engaged and attained successfully, the relationship is trusting, informative and also beneficial to not only a patient mental but physical health.. If the nurse-patient relationship shows no rapport or the nurse has failed to interact without using a holistic approach, then the patient may rebel to accepting treatment which could lead to a lengthened time for recovery causing further distress. it is important to understand patients may be feeling venerable and so nurses should never assume control and feelings of the patient as this does not promote the correct therapeutic trusting relationship, it promotes empowerment and discomfort. As a mental health nurse student, situations like this have been observed and this type of practice and lack of intervention with patients can easily arise causing much psychological distress and an uncooperative relationship for future treatment. Having previous experiences with a particular patient group, (even though all patients are unique and individual) can also contribute effectively towards the care and goals a nurse aims to achieve collaboratively with their patient and other health care professionals. Being focused on patients whilst offering professional judgement and care through personal experiences indicate the nurse is not only professional about her role but also empathetic towards her patients. Caring is a vital human interaction. In nursing, caring articulates how the nurse delivers the skills and knowledge of the professional interactions between the nurse and the patient. Being both empathic and sympathetic will reduce the patient’s distress and resolve difficulties as the relationship is based on a helping relationship engaging in mutual endeavours. A nurse who has built a good relationship with a patient by informing and allowing them to make choices will also to be in a strong position to have a non-judgemental conversation with them, whilst applying good clinical judgement that is in the best interest of the patient based on the relationship that has been formed. Given the close, personal nature involved in the role of a nurse,, it is easy to let professional boundaries blur. Nurses today are encouraged to take a more human, holistic approach to patient care. That increased sensitivity and attention to the emotional side of a patient’s treatment can easily lead to a loss of the professional distance nurses must maintain. Learning to balance care and compassion, while maintaining a professional distance is a difficult task to master, even for experienced nurses. However, it is imperative that nurses find and maintain that balance. Government regulations, malpractice insurance and disciplinary measures ensure that nurses who routinely cross the line and inappropriately blur professional boundaries no longer practice. Nursing Practice Standards state is it normal for a patient to feel gratitude towards a nurse who has helped them through a difficult medical treatment. However, there are standards nurses must follow when giving and receiving gifts, or other instances that may blur the line between personal and professional involvement. In small communities or in cases where a nurse cares for close friends or family, it is even harder to maintain professional standards. However, there are rules and standards for every profession, including nursing. There are ethical codes of conduct and actions for which all nurses are held accountable, no matter the patient.

How does Shakespeare present the role of Feste in Twelfth Night?

In William Shakespeare's comedy Twelfth Night the character of Feste is a solitary wit surrounded by fools. His occupation is that of Olivia's paid fool, which she inherited from her father, ‘Feste the jester†¦ a fool that the Lady Olivia's father took much pleasure in. ‘ This long standing relationship may be the reason he seems to have a status higher than that of a servant within the household, and appears to leave and return at will without fear of punishment, ‘Tell me where thou hast been or my lady will hang thee†¦ Let her hang me. This may also be because of Elizabethan attitudes towards allowed fools, who had gained popularity due to their presence in many royal courts. Feste`s palpable intelligence is an integral part of his role, as he uses it to communicate the subtext of Shakespeare`s complicated plot to both the other characters and the audience. It is therefore ironic that the fool is so frequently said to be dishonest, ‘Y`are a dry fool: I`ll take no more of you. Besides, you grow dishonest,' as throughout the play he does nothing but divulge truths. His cleverness is immediately apparent upon his first appearance for several different reasons. If he were not a fool then he would have no other way of making money, thus his decision to ingratiate himself once more into Olivia's good graces is a wise one, ‘To be turned away, is that not as good as a hanging to you? ‘ It would also be essential for him to be intelligent to play the role of fool, as he is paid for his acute observation disguised as witty remarks. The most obvious testament to Feste`s intelligence however is his ability to manipulate words. This ensures he keeps his job in Olivia's household, as when she asks for the fool to be taken away because he is dry, Feste twists her words around and returns them in the form of a pun, ‘Give the dry fool a drink, then is the fool not dry? ‘ His craftiness amuses Olivia, who allows him to stay. His way with words also allows him to voice his opinions on other characters without fear of retribution. Whilst engaged in idle banter Feste shares his observation of Malvolio and Sir Toby, ‘Sir Toby will be sworn that I am no fox, but he will not pass his word for twopence that you are no fool. This shows that although Toby is foolish as he cannot perceive Feste`s intellect, Malvolio`s idiocy is so apparent that even a fool such as Toby can see it. Feste later reaffirms his belief that Sir Toby is a fool and also shares his view of Sir Andrew. He greets the pair with the line, ‘Did you never see the picture of We Three? ‘ The painting shows only two fools whilst implying that the viewer is the third, and this comparison suggests he perceives Toby and Andrew to be fools as well as himself. It is in this way that he contributes to the underlying theme of deception that runs through the play. He deliberately presents himself to others as a mere fool, and despite the fact he is obviously much more than that, he is so proficient at this ruse that the only character to see through it is Viola, ‘This fellow is wise enough to play the fool, And to do that well, craves a kind of wit. ‘ It may be because he not only accepts his role as a fool but uses it to his advantage, accordingly gaining perspective from this self knowledge, that he can differ from the other characters and deceive others instead of himself. Perhaps it is because Feste`s intellect is so bountiful that he is taken beyond the role of simply a character. Through it he acquires the role of a somewhat omniscient narrator, infesting both the audience and the other characters with a heightened awareness of what is happening around and within them. This is shown during a conversation with Viola, where as thanks for a coin Feste states, ‘Now Jove, in his next commodity of hair, send thee a beard. ‘ This shows his awareness of her disguise, both to the audience and to Viola herself. It also shows he must at least be extremely discerning, to deduce such a thing from simply observing the meetings between Orsino and Viola and Olivia and Viola. The primary way he communicates his cryptic messages however is through song. The clown sings no fewer than seven songs throughout the play, and although the other characters see them as nothing more than a convenient source of entertainment, many have an underlying foresight far beyond the grasp of a mere jester. Feste sings his first song upon Sir Toby and Sir Andrews requests for a love song. The first verse appears to be about Olivia, and demonstrates Feste`s keen perception of the other characters and his uncanny knowledge of future events, ‘O mistress mine, where are you roaming? ‘ This shows Feste`s knowledge of Olivia's roaming heart, searching for its true love. ‘O stay and hear, your true loves coming. ‘ This line perfectly foreshadows future events, as Olivia finds love not whilst searching for it, but by it finding her in the form of Sebastian. Feste then proceeds to encapsulate the plays plot within one line of his song, ‘Journeys end in lovers meeting. This suggests that he may be ubiquitous, as his knowledge is not only of the future, but of the past events as well. It could however just be referring to the metaphorical journeys the characters have been on in their search for love, not the literal journey Viola and Sebastian have undertaken to Illyria. The second verse of his song appears to be addressed to Sir Toby, regarding his thus far secret love for Maria. It shows Feste`s knowledge of their hesitance towards love, ‘What's to come is still unsure. Entwined with the advice Feste appears to have also interwoven a philosophy for life, ‘Present mirth hath present laughter,' can be interpreted as carpe diem, fitting counsel for Sir Toby who needs to act upon his love before it is too late, ‘Youth`s a stuff will not endure. ‘ Another of Feste`s songs that has more to it than what appears at first glance is that which he sings at the Duke`s court for Orsino and Viola. Feste tells the sad tale of a boy that died for love, ‘I am slain be a fair cruel maid. ‘ It is a song that Viola and Orsino, both suffering from the pain of unrequited love, can relate to. The songs ‘fair cruel maid' for Orsino is Olivia, who knows of his love but does not return it. Viola`s ‘cruel maid' is Orsino himself, who cannot return her love as he does not know of it and believes her to be a man. The one event that does not concur with the omniscient portrayal of Feste is the arrival of Sebastian. Feste appears to truly believe that Sebastian is Cesario, to the extent that he becomes frustrated and resorts to sarcasm as a defence,' your name is not Master Cesario; nor this is not my nose either. This scene suggests that Feste is not as all knowing as he can appear, and is perhaps only a highly perceptive individual, a trait born of his considerable intelligence. Feste is presented as one of the more developed characters in the play, and his multifaceted personality shows in his tormenting of Malvolio. Prior to this Feste`s purpose has been to traverse between the main plot and the subplot (the only character to do so) and though he has passively inf luenced the events, he has remained very much an observer rather than an actual participant. The exception to this is his imitating Sir Topas to distress Malvolio, ‘I prithee put on this gown, and this beard; make him believe thou art Sir Topas the curate,' although his reasons for agreeing to Maria`s request are not entirely clear. He may have done it simply because he is clever enough to know nothing bad will happen to him because of it. He would probably also have recognized that Malvolio is not popular currently with Olivia, ‘O, you are sick of self-love, Malvolio, and taste with a distempered appetite,' and hence making him suffer would put Feste in a favourable position within the household. It may also be because he is clearly used to his abilities as a fool endearing him to others, and although the other characters do become annoyed and tired of him at times, Malvolio is the only one that appears to actively dislike him, ‘I marvel your ladyship takes delight in such a barren rascal. ‘ Whatever his reasons are this scene illustrates the more unsavoury aspects of Feste`s personality, but at the same time it also offers a contrast between how Feste and Malvolio are presented. Due to Malvolio`s self concerned and unpleasant behaviour it seems justifiable that he should be a rather one dimensional character, hampered by his own contemptible qualities. It is for this reason Feste`s superior attitude and actions towards him are understandable, and instead of serving to make the reader dislike Feste, it causes them to empathise with him as it shows his more human side that had previously been hidden beneath his sharp wit. In the style of a true narrator the last word (or indeed words) of Twelfth Night belong to Feste, who merges his dual roles, and delivers them in song format. It appears to be a rather dismal song for a clown, as it suggests that every day brings misery, ‘For the rain it raineth every day. ‘ This may be because the other characters have gone, leaving him alone with the audience, to whom he can deliver a last message. Feste`s final lesson appears to suggest that life is plagued with misery, therefore, like the characters in Twelfth Night, you should embrace happiness in whatever form it takes because it may not last. Shakespeare presents the role of Feste as a paradox: the wisest character of the play is the paid fool. Throughout Twelfth Night Feste directs, entertains and criticizes the other characters through his revealing songs and witty wordplay, and at the same time makes them reflect on their current circumstances. This is a similar relationship that Shakespeare, as a playwright, would have had with his audience, and it creates a parallel between the writer and his creation.

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The Slaughter House Five Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

The Slaughter House Five Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers The Slaughter House Five THE NOVEL - THE PLOT - Billy Pilgrim, like Kurt Vonnegut, was an American soldier in Europe in the last year of World War II. If you come to know a combat veteran well- a veteran of that war, of the Korean War, or of the war in Vietnam- you will almost always find that his war experience was the single most important event in his life. The sights and scars of war remain with the soldier for the rest of his days, and his memories of death and killing help to shape whatever future career he may make. The same is true for Billy Pilgrim. What he saw and did during his six months on the battlefield and as a prisoner of war have dominated his life. Slaughterhouse-Five shows how Billy comes to terms with the feelings of horror, guilt, and despair that are the result of his war experiences. Billy does this by putting the events of his life in perspective. He reorganizes his life so that all of it occurs within the context of his days in Europe during the war. Thus the novel relates Billy's prewar and postwar history (including his death in 1976, which was many years in the future when Vonnegut was writing this book), but the real story of the novel is the story of Billy's wartime days. All the other events in Billy's life are merely incidental to his time as a soldier and a prisoner of war. You see them as events that come to his mind as he lives, or relives, the last months of the war in Europe. Billy reorganizes his life by using the device of time-travel. Unlike everyone else, Billy Pilgrim doesn't live his life one day after another. He has become unstuck in time, and he jumps around among the periods of his life like a flea from dog to dog. When you meet him in Chapter 2, it is December 1944 and Billy and three other American soldiers are lost in a forest far behind enemy lines. Billy closes his eyes for a moment, drifts back to a day in his past with his father at the YMCA, then suddenly opens his eyes in the future: it's 1965 and he is visiting his mother in a nursing home. He blinks, the time changes to 1958, then 1961, and then he finds himself back in the forest in December 1944. Billy doesn't have much time to wonder about what has just happened. He's captured almost immediately by German soldiers and put onto a train bound for eastern Germany. Aboard the train Billy has a great adventure in the future: on his daughter's wedding night in 1967, he is kidnapped by a flying saucer from the imaginary planet Tralfamadore. The aliens take Billy to their home planet and put him in a zoo. Then, as always seems to happen, Billy wakes up back in the war. The train arrives at a prison camp, and there a group of British officers throw a banquet for the American POWs. Before long he is traveling in time again, to a mental hospital in 1948, where he's visited by his fiance, Valencia Merble. As soon as he recovers from his nervous breakdown, Billy will be set up in business as an optometrist by Valencia's father. Billy is introduced to science fiction by his hospital roommate, Eliot Rosewater, whose favorite author is Kilgore Trout. Trout's writing is terrible, but Billy comes to admire his ideas. Billy travels in time again to Tralfamadore, where he is the most popular exhibit in the zoo. His keepers love talking to Billy because his ideas are so strange to them. He thinks, for example, that wars could be prevented if people could see into the future as he can. Next Billy wakes up on the first night of his honeymoon. After making love, Valencia wants to talk about the war. Before Billy can say much about it, he's back there himself. The American POWs are being moved to Dresden, which as an open city (of no military value) has come through the war unscathed, while almost every other German city has been heavily bombed. Billy knows that Dresden will soon be totally destroyed, even though there's nothing worth bombing there- no troops, no weapons factories, nothing but people and beautiful buildings. The Americans are housed in building number five of the Dresden slaughterhouse. Billy continues his time-travels. He survives a plane crash in 1968. A few years before that, he meets Kilgore Trout. And on Tralfamadore he tells his zoo-mate, Montana Wildhack, about the

The History of Cheesecake and Cream Cheese

The History of Cheesecake and Cream Cheese According to anthropologists who have found cheese molds dating back to that period, cheese making can be traced back as far as 2,000 B.C. Cheesecake, however, is believed to have originated in ancient Greece. In fact, a form of cheesecake may have been served to the athletes during the first Olympic Games held in 776 B.C. to give them energy. Greek brides of the era also cooked and served cheesecake to their wedding guests. In The Oxford Companion to Food, editor Alan Davidson notes that cheesecake was mentioned in Marcus Porcius Catos De re Rustica around 200 BCE and that Cato described making his cheese libum (cake) with results very similar to modern cheesecake. The Romans spread the tradition of cheesecake from Greece across Europe. Centuries later, cheesecake appeared in America, with a variety of regional recipes brought over by immigrants. Cream Cheese When Americans think of cheesecake now, its most often associated with a product that has a cream cheese base. Cream cheese was invented in 1872 by American dairyman William Lawrence of Chester, New York, who accidentally stumbled on a method of producing cream cheese while trying to reproduce a French cheese called Neufchà ¢tel. In 1880, Lawrence began distributing his cream cheese in foil wrappers under the auspices of the Empire Cheese Company of South Edmeston, New York, where he manufactured the product. However, you might know it better by the more famous name Lawrence came up with for his not Neufchà ¢tel- Philadelphia Brand Cream Cheese. In 1903, the Phoenix Cheese Company bought Lawrences business- and with it, the Philadelphia trademark. In 1928, the brand was bought by the Kraft Cheese Company. James L. Kraft invented pasteurized cheese in 1912, which led to the development of pasteurized Philadelphia Brand cream cheese, currently the most popular cheese used for cheesecake making. Kraft Foods still owns and produces Philadelphia Cream Cheese today. Fast Facts: Cheesecake Favorites Traditional Greek Cheesecake- Most â€Å"traditional† Greek cheesecake is made using ricotta cheese, however, for the real deal, try to find authentic unsalted  anthotyros or myzirtha cheeses which are made with either goat’s or sheep’s milk. Greek cheesecake is usually sweetened with honey. Some recipes incorporate flour directly into the cheese/honey mixture prior to baking, while others employ a crust.Cream Cheese Cheesecake- The cheesecake most Americans grew up with is one or another version of a cream cheese cheesecake. At the bottom of such cheesecakes, you’ll usually find a crust made of crushed Graham crackers or other cookies (Oreos are a top choice for chocolate cheesecakes) that have been blended with butter and tamped into the bottom of a pan or mold. Cheesecakes that rely on a custard base must be baked. (The original New York Cheesecake that hails from Juniors on Flatbush Avenue in Brooklyn is a baked cheesecake.) However, there are scads of recipes that use a blend of other rich ingredients- such as sour cream, Greek yogurt, or heavy cream- that firm up in the refrigerator to create a â€Å"no-bake cheesecake.† Cheesecake is Technically Pie, Not Cake While its called cheesecake because cheesecake is generally unleavened and usually has a crust- whether that crust is baked or not- its is really a form of pie. Most baked cheesecakes use a custard base for filling comprised of milk, eggs, sugar, salt, and vanilla or other flavorings. The standard cheesecake recipe has the addition of cream cheese but allows for variations in the type of crust, other flavorings, such as chocolate, and a variety of toppings that range from fruit to nuts to candy. Another misconception about cheesecake is that it has to be sweet. The French classic, quiche, is for all intents and purposes a savory cheesecake. You can find any number of recipes for savory cheese pies from countries across Europe and throughout the United States.

Response to 3 students posting with 2 references each Coursework

Response to 3 students posting with 2 references each - Coursework Example by Onwuegbuzie & Leech (2005) who supported the assertion that mixed method research is a matter of natural research process that calls for a more extensive utilization of both qualitative and quantitative methods, in unison. I therefore believe that mixed method research attests to the valid need to integrate the strengths in both methods to come up with more conclusive, reliable and valid research findings. It is highly commendable that you have supported your arguments with as many as four (4) references on expounding the discussion on Mixed Method Research. As you cited the research works of Onwuegbuzie & Collins (2007) have likewise noted from the works of Tashakkori and Teddlies (2003) book, SAGE Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social & Behavioral Research, that there are indeed more than 35 mixed methods research designs, which is just amazing and potentially complex. This just goes to show that there are vast research designs that could be utilized to the advantage of researchers, as long as they have the knowledge, awareness, and proper competencies to apply these tools to their advantage. The assertions from Pole’s (2007) discourse was noteworthy in terms of indicating that â€Å"qualitative researchers viewing the world as interconnected, while quantitative researchers rationalizes the world’s views are scientifically based† (p. 36). One thereby agrees that although there is a valid point in the distinctive differences between the interconnected view of the qualitative research method and the more structured, definitive and scientifically based quantitative method; these disparities form the respective strengths and competitive advantages of each method. However, when taken together and integrated in a particular study, merits from both methods are crucial to validate the findings and make the results more conclusive and reliable. The fact that mixed research method is actually not confined to a number of research designs, as argued by Tashakkori

Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Process - Essay Example This process, based on a particular projects requirement, can follow an engineering-based approach, a structured approach, or an incremental approach (Jawadekar, 2004). However, in recent years, software development firms have adopted methodologies that are a mix of different software development methodologies. According to Jawadekar (2004), software development process is usually made up of the following stages: Comprehension and analysis of the specific problems and requirements of a client Planning – developing a strategic plan for the development of the software Creating a design for the customized software solution Implementation – actual development of the software, which entails coding Testing – entails unit testing and whole system testing Installation – deploying the actual system/software Maintenance and error fixing All these stages combined make up the software development process, also well known as SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle). Base d on the needs of the client, more or less time may be devoted to any of the stages mentioned above. Process Stages Explained The diagram above (Figure 1.0) illustrates the stages followed in a software development process. The Requirements stage entails defining the required information, behaviors, functions, interfaces, and performance of the software product to be built. The Planning stage entails the preparation of a strategic plan that is expected to guide the development of the software. It defines important deliverables, timelines and milestones. The Design stage involves creation of a design based on the client’s requirements. It entails defining and designing of the software architecture, data structures, algorithmic details, and interface representations. Implementation entails actual writing of software source code, database design, unit testing and user documentation. The Testing stage entails testing of the source code. System, unit, and user acceptance or usabil ity testing are also performed at this stage. The Installation stage, also known as the deployment, is the last stage in the initial development process (Jawadekar, 2004). This is where the software units are integrated into one unit. Some testing also occurs at this stage, since the software is made for an actual business and used by actual users. As a result, there is extensive monitoring of bugs, or errors. Additionally, training is done at this stage and any customizations required are carried out (Jawadekar, 2004). Maintenance entails making enhancements and changes to system before it can officially be handed over to the client. Faults discovered during testing are corrected. Process Audience Description The intended audience for this process includes project leader, management, the client, testers, and development team members (Jawadekar, 2004). It is important for the project leader since this process helps guide the whole project and, therefore, it is important for the proj ect leader, especially in terms of project monitoring, duty assignment and delegation, deliverables and milestone tracking. As far as the overall management is concerned, this process is important since it helps know what to expect and when to expect it. It also offers an outline of how a particular software product will be developed and delivered. They are especially involved at the end of each stage since they are responsible for evaluating deliverables and ensuring

International marketing entry strategy for Cow & Gate in China Essay

International marketing entry strategy for Cow & Gate in China - Essay Example Recognizing that China has huge potential for baby food, C&G aims to enter and market its products in China. An evaluation of the business environment and market potential would help decide international marketing for China. 2.0 PEST Analysis of China 2.1 Political China’s political and social landscape is stable because of decades or opening up of the economy and the reforms that have been brought about. The Communist Party of China (CPC) has improved governance according to the needs of the people. Political stability has been achieved as people were invited to participate in politics (China Daily, 2011). The voices of people have been heard and their interests safeguarded. The Chinese people seek stability, improvement in the standards of living and enhancement of national strength. There are apprehensions whether under new leadership of Xi Jinping decentralization and liberalization would continue unchanged (Huang, 2013). Protests have become the natural form of expression due to lack of direct elections and a string civil society. As such, the provincial leaders take steps they consider appropriate to promote growth and maintain political stability. However, discretionary action is required as force can lead to violence and leniency can encourage protestors to extract even more from the system. The top authorities however, work in the interest of the people. Nevertheless, the nation lacks accountability at the bottom level and this, needs to be changed. 2.2 Economic Economic reforms in the country have been in place since the 1970s when the economy started moving from a centrally planned one to a more market-oriented one. It has opened up the economy to the world and its accession to World Trade Organization further accelerated the process of integration into the world economy. As a result China became the world’s largest exporter in 2010. State-owned enterprises that are considered important to ‘economic security’ are given supp ort. The restructuring of the economy has led to ten-fold increase in GDP which currently stands at $8.26 trillion (CIA, 2013). China was the second largest economy in the world in 2012 but still per capital income is below the world average. In 2005 China revalued its currency and moved to an exchange rate system that references several currencies. Unemployment rate in China is 6.1 percent and inflation rate is 3.2 percent (Sharma, 2012). China has a labour force of 815.3 million as of 2010, of which 43 percent are in the service sector. China’s economy has experienced a strong annual GDP growth rate of ten percent in the past five years (Bharat Book Bureau, 2012). The drivers of growth of the Chinese economy include high rate of savings, abundance of skilled labour, and urban growth. Inward FDI has been a strong driver of economic growth in China. Leading MNCs in every sector have been making inroads in China which has positively impacted the local manufacturers. It encoura ged innovation and consequently led to low-cost production. Economic reforms and simplification of tax laws and FDI procedures have made China a very attractive destination for investment and growth. 2.3 Social China has a population of over 1.3 billion of 16.6 percent are in the age group of 0-14 years. The literacy rate is 92.8 percent and the main religion followed is

Plato and Rousseaus Commentary on Constitutional Breakdown Essay

Plato and Rousseaus Commentary on Constitutional Breakdown - Essay Example Plato thus emphasized that democracy, just like oligarchy, draws a rift between the rich and the poor (Rosen, 2008). With the perceiving the rich as plotting against them, they seek protection through rallying their support behind a champion. With the increasing support of the mob, such a champion is likely to turn into a tyrant. For Plato, the law ought to be a defining factor for all the actions of individuals within a certain jurisdiction and that people have to lose their freedom for the sake of gaining peace and harmony. To prevent degeneration of the constitution, Plato postulates that the law has to become the master of the government and the government to be its slave, so that every person is answerable to the law. In addition, Plato suggests that for a constitution to be effective then the government should be run by the best (aristocratic), so that the leaders are highly wise and that they receive proper training concerning how a state should be run. Contrary to Plato’s view, Rousseau believes that constitutions that fail to recognize the individual moral responsibility of the citizens is bound to degenerate with time. As such, for any constitutional coercions to be justified, they must be based on certain general agreements among the citizens. Rousseau observed that constitutional governments were driven by an assumption that citizens within a given state, regardless of their divisions in terms of personal opinions, remain firmly in agreement concerning the desire to share the same political existence.

Alcoholics Anonymous Meeting Experience Paper Essay

Alcoholics Anonymous Meeting Experience Paper - Essay Example It was on the latter end of the session when Ms Jenny linked the reading to alcoholism. This is where people started to share insights past and present on how family relations based on their own families were affected by alcohol. I thought the meeting was done in a relaxed atmosphere and the feeling of support was all around the place. I thought it was effective for the people to sit in a circle so that the group saw and heard each other with ease. The article was very effective in evoking insights on alcohol. The facilitator didn't start to pose questions to people, rather, the article led the discussion. It was able to open up discussion on alcoholism without much effort in asking people to share. I believe the meeting being not too short and too long is essential in keeping the people inspired to attend. Most of them were enjoying the sessions and this is important to keep the patients sustaining their commitment to the program. At first I was excited to get into the exercise but when I arrived early and saw Ms. Jenny and the seats arranged in a circle, I began to be nervous. I felt so incapable of the task because all my expectations came from media and television presentations that visualized the Alcoholics Anonymous as a stressful outpouring of emotions.

The Right of Due Process Guaranteed by the Fifth and Fourteenth Research Paper

The Right of Due Process Guaranteed by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution - Research Paper Example One of the principles that is represented in the Constitution is the right to due process which is given in the Fifth and the Fourteenth Amendments. The Fourteenth Amendment expands on the Fifth applying it to a broader audience. Due process is related to how laws are applied and how they are enforced. For example, if an individual has committed a criminal act for which they need to be penalized, they cannot just be thrown in jail, there has to be the process that is under law. In this case the process involves using a warrant, a trial, and sentencing among other steps. Operating without this process is not only illegal in the example, but it is also unconstitutional. While due process is guaranteed by the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution, the exact meaning of due process is not clearly established. The ambiguity has meant decisions within the Supreme Court as to the meaning of the phrase and whether it applied to the cases that were being heard at the time. These decisions have helped to shape the current interpretation of the law such as the right of defendants to have representation and for accused to be made aware of their rights before questioning. However, some recent Supreme Court decisions appear to go against the right of due process set forth in the constitution. Background The United States was founded by Europe, and as a consequence was governed by them. Because of the great distance and the disinterest of the British government in its colonists the rule that England exercised over the colonies was mild, at least initially. The desire for change came at the end of the war between the French settlers and the British colonists when the British government demanded taxes from the colonists as payment for the men that it had supplied. The desire to tax the colonists, without allowing them representation in the British courts was one of the reasons for the American Revolution. The revolution began in 1776 and the colonists declared the ir independence from their founding country, choosing instead to be ruled by law from within. The Constitution promised rights to all Americans regardless of class and rates and detailed the system of government for America, one that served the people rather than serving itself . The Constitution forbids any individual being deprived of â€Å"†¦life, liberty, or property, without due process of the law...† This right is cited both within the Fifth and the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The Fifth Amendment applied these rights only to federal courts, while this was expanded for the Fourteenth Amendment to include all states. Due process is not specifically defined within the Constitution, but is generally perceived to mean a judicial procedure that is just and fair, most commonly a trial before peers . It is an important concept and it applies in a wide number of legal cases. What is Due Process? While the Amendments guarantee due process the intention and the legal application of the term is not simple to determine. In particular, the word ‘due’ within the phrase raises significant contention. Is a process ‘due’ if it is within current laws, such as the requirements under law for a trial before

Alcoholics Anonymous Meeting Experience Paper Essay

Alcoholics Anonymous Meeting Experience Paper - Essay Example It was on the latter end of the session when Ms Jenny linked the reading to alcoholism. This is where people started to share insights past and present on how family relations based on their own families were affected by alcohol. I thought the meeting was done in a relaxed atmosphere and the feeling of support was all around the place. I thought it was effective for the people to sit in a circle so that the group saw and heard each other with ease. The article was very effective in evoking insights on alcohol. The facilitator didn't start to pose questions to people, rather, the article led the discussion. It was able to open up discussion on alcoholism without much effort in asking people to share. I believe the meeting being not too short and too long is essential in keeping the people inspired to attend. Most of them were enjoying the sessions and this is important to keep the patients sustaining their commitment to the program. At first I was excited to get into the exercise but when I arrived early and saw Ms. Jenny and the seats arranged in a circle, I began to be nervous. I felt so incapable of the task because all my expectations came from media and television presentations that visualized the Alcoholics Anonymous as a stressful outpouring of emotions.

Linguistics and Language Essay Example for Free

Linguistics and Language Essay What will be covered in this class? †¢ How do we produce and recognize speech? †¢ How do we perceive words, letters, and sentences? †¢ How do we learn and recall information from texts? †¢ How can we improve texts to make them easier to understand? †¢ How does the brain function to process language? †¢ What are the causes and effects of reading disabilities? †¢ Is there language in other species? Central themes in psycholinguistics 1) What knowledge of language is needed for us to use language? Tacit (implicit) knowledge vs. Explicit knowledge  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ tacit: knowledge of how to perform something, but not aware of full rules †¢ explicit: knowledge of the processes of mechanisms in performing that thing 2) What cognitive processes are involved in the ordinary use of language? How do we understand a lecture, read a book, hold a conversation? Cognitive processes: perception, memory, thinking, learning Some definitions of basic components of language: Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences Syntax: The grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase Phonology: The sound pattern of language Pragmatics: How language is used in a social context  Examples from psycholinguistics Parsing garden path sentences The novice accepted the deal before he had a chance to check his finances, which put him in a state of conflict when he realized he had a straight flush. 1) The defendant examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable 2). The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable The process of parsing is the process of making decisions The effect of prior knowledge on comprehension The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell. After the procedure is completed, one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more, and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life. Bransford Johnson, 1973 Recall: No context: 2. 8 idea units out of a maximum of 18 Context afterwards: 2. 7 idea units Context before: 5. 8 idea units Child language development How many words do you know? Hint: Dictionary has about: 450,000 entries Test high school graduates: How many words do they know? About 45,000 english words About 60,000 including names and foreign words. The average six year old knows about 13,000 words. Learning about 10 words per day since age 1. (One every 90 minutes) How much do we have to teach children to learn language? Do you have to teach a child to walk? Is it the same way of learning a language? My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we patted them I eated my dinner A brief history of psycholinguistics Wilhem Wundt (early 1900s) Interest in mental processes of language production †¢ Sentence as the primary unit of language †¢ Speech production is the transformation of complete thought processes into sequentially organized speech segments. Behaviorism (1920s-1950s) †¢ Rejected the focus on mental processes †¢ Measurement based on objective behavior (primarily in lab animals) †¢ How does experience (reward and punishment) shape behavior? B. F. Skinner: Children learn language through shaping (correction of speech errors) Associative chain theory: A sentence consists of a chain of associations between individual words in the sentence What’s wrong with the behaviorist approach? Noam Chomsky (1950s present) 1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously 2) Furiously sleep ideas green colorless. 3) George picked up the baby. 4) George picked the baby up. Almost every sentence uttered is a new combination of words The Poverty of stimulus argument: There is not enough information in the language samples given to children to account for the richnes and complexity of children’s language The pattern of development is not based on parental speech but on innate language knowledge Linguistic Diversity vs. Linguistic Universals Linguistic diversity There appears to be a lot of diversity among languages Even within languages there is diversity When are two languages different? We speak the same language if we can understand each other  Exceptions: Norwegian and Swedish Cantonese and Mandarin Dialects within languages: The myth of pure language How/why do languages change? Why does there seem to be a correct English? Members of the dominant (most powerful) sub-culture tend to speak one dialect and may punish those who do not Linguistic Chauvinism Belief that one’s own language/dialect is the best of all possible languages Black English Vernacular (BEV) Study by William Labov Interviewed African-American street youth You know, like some people say if you’re good an’ sh*t, your spirit goin’ t’heaven . . . ‘n if you bad, your spirit goin’ to hell. Well, bullsh*t! Your spirit goin’ to hell anyway, good or bad. [Why? ] Why? I’ll tell you why. ‘Cause, you see, doesn’ nobody really know that it’s a God, y’know, ‘cause I mean I have seen black gods, white gods, all color gods, and don’t nobody know it’s really a God. An’ when they be sayin’ if you good, you goin’ t’heaven, tha’s bullsh*t, ‘cause you ain’t goin’ to no heaven, ‘cause it ain’t no heaven for you to go to. †¢ Place holders: There vs. It in the copula †¢ Copula: Is, Was optional †¢ Negatives: You ain’t goin’ to no heaven. BEV just as linguistically complex as Standard American English We don’t see/understand the complexity in other languages Moral: All languages seem to permit as wide range of expressions as others Linguistic Universals What is in common with all languages? Sentences are built from words based on the same physiological processes †¢ All languages have words †¢ All humans have ways of making sounds. †¢ Languages tend to use a small set of phonemic sounds †¢ Phoneme: The minimal unit of sound that contributes to meaning How many phonemes in a language? †¢ English: 40 phonemes †¢ Range: Polynesian 11 to Khoisan 141. Discreteness Messages in human language (e. g. speech sounds) are made up of units of which there is a discrete (limited) number Arbitrariness The relationship between meaningful elements in language and their denotation is independent of any physical resemblance between the two. Words do not have to look or sound like what they describe Openness †¢ New linguistic messages are created freely and easily †¢ Languages are not constrained in a way so that there are a limited number of messages that can be created. †¢ Linguistic Productivity: The ability to understand and create an unlimited number of sentences. The question studied by psycholinguists is how to characterize and account for the creativity to construct and create an infinite number of sentences given the limited capabilities of the human brain Duality of Patterning Language involves relating two different kinds of patterns or forms of representation †¢ A phonological system †¢ A semantic system These two systems use very different types of codes, although there is a phonological representation for each item in the semantic system Phrase structure Information on how a sentence is grouped into phrases. The quiet boy ate the red apple A set of Phrase Structure rules: PS 1 S (sentence) - NP + VP PS 2 NP (noun phrase)- det + (adj) + N PS 3 VP (verb phrase) - V +NP PS 4 N (noun) - boy, dog, man, book PS 5 V (verb) - ate, broke, kissed PS 6 adj (adjective - quiet, red, happy, wormy PS 7 det (determiner) - a, the We use lexical-insertion rules to put words into the structure. Phrase-structure rules provide a good account of phrase-structure ambiguity. They are broiling hens Morphology Morphology is the component of grammar that builds words out of units of meaning (morphemes) A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language How many morphemes? bird firetruck undereducated unmicrowaveability Insights from American Sign Language (ASL) Unlike speech, signs are expressed in visual or spatial form Do a lot of the same grammatical concepts hold? Arbitrariness ASL possesses iconicity signs can represent objects or actions to which they refer. However, the degree of iconicity has declined over the years Duality of Patterning signs are composed of smaller elements that are meaningless Example: 3 parameters †¢ 19 values of hand configuration. †¢ 12 values of place of articulation †¢ 24 values of movements Meaningless patterns can be combined in various ways to from ASL signs. What about openness and discreteness within ASL? Transformational Grammar (Chomsky 1950s) Language: an infinite set of well-formed sentences Grammar: A finite set of rules that generates sentences in the language How do we know that a grammar is a good theory of language? Three criteria: Observational Adequacy: A grammar is observationally adequate if it generates all acceptable sequences and no unacceptable sequences. Descriptive adequacy: A grammar must also explain how a sentence relates to other sentences that are similar opposite in meaning. The ball was caught by John John caught the ball The ball was not caught by John Explanatory adequacy It is possible for multiple grammars to attain observational and descriptive adequacy. Which is the correct/best one? Children learning language are presented with many samples of language and must determine the grammar from these samples. There must be some innate language constraints that help children determine the correct grammar. There exist Linguistic Universals that are common to all languages. The fact that there are similarities in languages is based on the fact that languages are determined by the nature of the mental structures and processes which characterize human beings A Grammar must explain the role of linguistic universals in language acquisition Deep and Surface structure Deep structure: The structure of the sentence that conveys the meaning of the sentence. Surface Structure: The superficial arrangement of constituents Deep structure ambiguity: A single surface structure that is based on two different deep structures Flying planes can be dangerous. Phrase structure rules would not be able to account for the differences in meaning Sentences can have similar phrase structure, although their underlying structure is different: John is easy to please John is eager to please Sentences can different surface structure, but similar deep structure Arlene played the tuba The tuba was played by Arlene Transformational Grammar A two part process to derive a sentence 1) Use Phrase-structure rules to generate the underlying tree structure (deep structure) 2) Apply a sequence of transformational rules to the deep  structure to generate the surface structure of the sentence Transformations occur by adding, deleting or moving constituents John phoned up the woman John phoned the woman up Phrase structure approach: Two different rules VP V + (particle) + NP VP V + NP + (particle) Each sentence is derived separately, using different phrase structure rules. Transformational grammar approach: One rule V + particle + NP V + NP + particle John phoned up the interesting woman John phoned the interesting woman up John phoned up the woman with the curly hair John phoned the woman with the curly hair up. Restrictions on transformations The particle-movement transformation can not be applied to pronouns John called them up *John called up them Example 2: Passive transformation NP1 + V + NP2 NP2 + be + V + en + by + NP1 Arlene played the tuba The tuba was played by Arlene Psychological Reality of Transformational Grammar If using language is a process of converting the deep structure to the surface structure, then the number of transformation rules applied should affect how long it takes to process a sentence. However, experiments do not consistently show that this holds true Current theories of grammar Lexical-Function Grammar  Made up of three components: a constituent structure, a functional structure, and lexical entries Constituent Structure: Similar to phrase structure Functional Structure: All the information needed for semantic interpretation John told Mary to leave Bill Predicate tell (subj, obj, V-comp) Tense Past Subj John Obj Mary V-comp predicate leave subj Mary obj Bill Lexical Entries Lexical entries contain information about: †¢ the forms of the word †¢ the kinds of sentences into which they fit, †¢ arguments and semantic roles Mary kissed John John was kissed by Mary Entry for kiss includes underlying semantic structure  kiss: (agent, patient). Forms of the word kiss: agent = subject: patient = object (be) kiss: agent=object: patient = subject Major significance of LFG Most of the explanation of how we process language is based on the lexicon (where we store information about words) . Government-Binding Theory or Universal Grammar Chomsky’s view of innate grammatical mechanisms. In GB theory, grammar is modular. Grammar due to interaction of several independent subsystems, or modules. Each module is fairly simple and performs part of the task But all modules interact in order to constrain the rules made by the other modules in the grammar. Implications We all inherit a universal grammar that can be set to different parameter values. These parameter values correspond to different languages. As we get experience with a language, we acquire these parameter values, and thus the language upon which it is based. Research methods in Psycholinguistics How do we observe, collect information on phenomena related to psycholinguistics? Naturalistic Observation Observing information in a non-experimental setting Slips of the tongue Phonological switching: Crushing blow Blushing crow semantic replacements: blond eyes for blond hair. Language Acquisition The use of language over time Data from naturalistic observation Rich, but hard to analyze Controlled experiments Goal: test an empirical hypothesis Hypothesis: A chapter will be easier to understand if each section starts with a summary of what will be said. Independent Variable: Variable that is manipulated to test the hypothesis. Dependent Variable: Variable representing the behavior we want to measure Control Variables: Other variables we need to control in order to see the effect of the independent variable Subjects: Who is going to participate in the experiment? Analysis: How do we know if there are differences bewteen the two chapters? The Human Information Processing System What psychological mechanisms are involved in using language? The Sensory store Processes incoming information from the environment †¢ Individual sensory stores for each sense †¢ Information retained for a short duration The visual sensory store Experiments by Sperling (1960) X M R K C N J P V F L B The partial report technique Auditory sensory store Experiment by Darwin, Turvey Crowder (1972) 3 digits or letters auditorally presented to each ear and center at the same time. What is the use of the sensory store? It maintains information long enough so that we can do additional processing to it. Working memory or short term memory (STM) STM used to describe the fact that it holds information for a short time, while working memory refers to the processing capacity. STM works as a temporary holding place for intermediate decisions. Limited in size. Chunking Working memory: there is a limited amount of processing capacity that you can use as you perform a problem Long term memory Knowledge of how to do things, things we have learned, grammar rules, personal memories. All knowledge that is not active. Information that becomes active is retrieved from LTM and put in STM. Anything we learn is first processed in STM and some of it is put into LTM Episodic vs. Semantic Memory distinction Semantic memory †¢ Organized knowledge of words, concepts, symbols and objects. motor skills, general knowledge, spatial knowledge , social skills. †¢ All information is organized semantically, but not tagged based on when it was learned. Episodic memory †¢ Holds traces of events specific time and place. †¢ Memory of personal experiences. Interaction between semantic and episodic memory. What does the organization of the information processing system have to do with language processing? Pattern Recognition Parsing/understanding sentences in working memory This is a long sentence and yet somehow you can keep it all in working memory The organization of Long Term Memory That cat plays really cool jazz Serial vs. Parallel Processing Serial processing: One process working at a time Parallel Processing: Multiple processes working at a time In a serial model of language processing, individual modules would work one at a time to process the information. A parallel model would say that the processes happen at the same time. Parallel models as neurally inspired models of cognitive processes Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up processing Cognitive processing occurs at levels Bottom-up processing is done in such a way that all processing occurs starting from the lowest level processes and proceeds onto the higher level processes Higher level processes do not influence any of the processing done at the lower levels Top down processing: Information at the higher levels influences processing at the lower levels. Advantages and disadvantages of Top-Down processing Automatic vs. Controlled processes We have a limited amount of processes that we can do at a time. Controlled processing: Processes that require a substantial amount of cognitive processing. Automatic processing: Processes that do not require a substantial amount of cognitive processing. The role of practice in automatic processing The Stroop effect Putting it all together: Cognitive processes in action The novice accepted the deal before he had a chance to check his finances, which put him in a state of conflict when he realized he had a straight flush. The Internal Lexicon How are words stored? What are they made up of? How are word related to each other? How do we use them? Internal lexicon The representation of words in long term memory Lexical Access: How do we activate the meanings of words? Aspects of Meaning Reference: The relationship between words and things in the world Things in the world are referents of a word My dog has fleas My dog is from Mars But not all reference can be mapped to concrete things Abstract words: Love, Justice, Equality Non existent objects: Unicorn, Martians Meaning is not restricted to the real world, but also imaginary worlds Sense: The relationship of a word with other words in the language Student at NMSU vs. Undergraduate at NMSU Synonymy (same meaning) Car Automobile Antonymy (opposite meaning) Happy Sad Incompatibility (do the words contradict each other? ) John is happy vs. John is sad Hyponymy (are they part of the same class? ) A dog is an animal, Bowser is a dog, Denotation vs. Connotation Denotation: The objective meaning of the word Connotation: The aspect of the meaning beyond its explicit meaning Bachelor Spinster Hungry Starving The Mental Representation of Meaning The representation of the meaning of a word is based on the semantic features of that word. We acquire the meaning of a word by learning its semantic features Children make semantic mistakes Verbs of possession. We understand more than the meaning, we have knowledge of the relations between these words sold vs. paid give vs. receive lose vs. find Prototypes: Some members of a category are better instances of the category than others Apple vs. pomegranate What makes a prototype? More central semantic features What type of dog is a prototypical dog What are the features of it? We are faster at retrieving prototypes of a category than other members of the category Semantic Networks. Words can be represented as an interconnected network of sense relations †¢ Each word is a particular node †¢ Connections among nodes represent semantic relationships Mental models: A model/understanding of how the world works and how pieces of textual information fits in with it. John is sitting in a chair. That chair is on a table. The table is blue and round. John has red hair. The structure of the Internal Lexicon How do these pieces of semantic information relate to each other? Semantic verification task An A is a B An apple is a fruit A robin is a bird A robin is an animal A dog has teeth  A fish has gills A fish has feathers An apple has teeth NMSU is in New Mexico Harvard is in California Use time on verification tasks to map out the structure of the lexicon. Models of the Lexicon Collins and Quillian Hierarchical Network model Lexical entries stored in a hierarchy, with features attached to the lexical entries Representation permits cognitive economy Testing the model Sentence Verification time Robins eat worms 1310 msecs Robins have feathers 1380 msecs Robins have skin 1470 msecs A category size effect: Subjects do an intersection search Problems with Collins and Quillian model . 1) Effect may be due to frequency of association 2) Assumption that all lexical entries at the same level are equal The Typicality Effect Which is a more typical bird? Ostrich or Robin. A whale is a fish vs. A horse is a fish Major conclusions of the model: 1) If a fact about a concept is frequently encountered, it will be stored with that concept even if it could be inferred from a more distant concept. 2) The more frequently encountered a fact about a concept is, the more strongly that fact will be associated with the concept. And the more strongly associated with a concept facts are, the more rapidly they are verified. 3) Verifying facts that are not directly stored with a concept but that must be inferred takes a relatively long time. Spreading Activation Models (Collins Loftus) †¢ Words represented in lexicon as a network of relationships †¢ Organization is a web of interconnected nodes in which connections can represent: categorical relations degree of association typicality Retrieval of information †¢ Spreading activation †¢ Limited amount of activation to spread †¢ Verification times depend on closeness of two concepts in a network Context effect in spreading activation models Present either: Murder is a crime or Libel is a crime Then get verification time for Robbery is a crime Subjects faster when they see Murder than Libel. Why? Advantages of Collins and Loftus model †¢ Recognizes diversity of information in a semantic network †¢ Captures complexity of our semantic representation †¢ Consistent with results from priming studies Lexical Access What factors are involved in retrieving information from the lexicon? Semantic Priming Meyer Schvaneveldt (1971) Lexical Decision Task Prime Target Time Nurse Butter 940 msecs Bread Butter 855 msecs Evidence for associative spreading activation. Ratcliff and McKoon (1981) Subjects study and memorize The doctor hated the book Task: Was this word from the sentence you memorized? Prime Target Time None Book 667 msecs Doctor Book 624 msecs Word Frequency Does word frequency play a role in lexical access? Lexical Decision Task: gambastya, revery, voitle, chard, wefe, cratily, decoy, puldow, raflot, oriole, vuluble, booble, chalt, awry, signet, trave, crock, cryptic, ewe, himpola mulvow, governor, bless, tuglety, gare, relief, ruftily, history, pindle, develop, gardot, norve, busy, effort, garvola, match,sard, pleasant, coin, maisle. Lexical Decision is dependent on word frequency Eyemovement studies: Subjects spend about 80 msecs longer fixating on low-frequency words than high-frequency words Morphological Structure So we strip off the prefixes and suffixes of a word for lexical access? Decision = Decide + ion Lexical Decision Tasks: Prime Target Time Nurse Butter 940 msecs Bread Butter 855 msecs Evidence for associative spreading activation Ratcliff and McKoon (1981) Subjects study and memorize The doctor hated the book Task: Was this word from the sentence you memorized? Prime Target Time None Book 667 msecs Doctor Book 624 msecs Word Frequency Does word frequency play a role in lexical access? Lexical Decision Task: gambastya, revery, voitle, chard, wefe, cratily, decoy, puldow, raflot, oriole, vuluble, booble, chalt, awry, signet, trave, crock, cryptic, ewe, himpola mulvow, governor, bless, tuglety, gare, relief, ruftily, history, pindle, develop, gardot, norve, busy, effort, garvola, match,sard, pleasant, coin, maisle. Lexical Decision is dependent on word frequency Eyemovement studies: Subjects spend about 80 msecs longer fixating on low-frequency words than high-frequency words Morphological Structure So we strip off the prefixes and suffixes of a word for lexical access? Decision = Decide + ion Lexical Decision Tasks: Presented subjects with a sequence of words to study Examined the probability of recognizing words over 14 days Performance systematically decays over time Negatively accelerated decay. Bahrick (1984) Students retention of spanish-english vocabulary items from 0 to 50 years Power law of decay Review on the internal lexicon Aspects of meaning: Reference and Sense Denotation and Connotation What is the mental representation of meaning? Models of the Lexicon Hierarchical Network Model Spreading Activation Model What factors are involved in retrieving information from the lexicon? Semantic Priming Word Frequency Morphological Structure Lexical Ambiguity Retention of lexical items.